Corruption in the Teamsters Union

In 1902 a group of horse and buggy drivers created the Teamsters Union, in that the Teamsters were employed to transport goods. This occupation has played an important part in the economic development of the United States. Although they worked under difficult circumstances at the turn of the twentieth century they began to unionize on an extensive scale. There was no established national organization until 1912 that the teamsters were secure. Back in those days certain crafts and professions were considered as public-interest endeavors, which were licensed and regulated by the town authorities. Included in the teamsters which started with cart-men were; doorkeepers, butchers, and bakers. With the public being so reliant on these crafts they showed a monopoly and the members would join in strikes, to change supply and demand so they could increase prices for their products. In addition, the strikes served the purpose in securing higher wages and fees for services, and to keep outsiders from operating in the same craft. The strikes came about as early as the seventeenth century, although there weren’t any conflicts between labor and management. Instead, the strikes represented demonstrations against local laws and directives and were aimed in influencing the actions of town councils. There were numerous grievances due to the charges and rates established by localities for teamsters and in the seventeenth century cart-men did not work for earnings but owned the horses and wagons. Back in 1677 New York held the first tribunal for a strike in which, â€Å"Twelve truckmen were dismissed by the common council for not carrying out the duties prescribed for them by the city. The prosecution charged that the men were in contempt; it did not base its case upon conspiracy. Conditions prevailing in New York City were typical of those under which cart-men labored prior to 1850. † (Witwer) The New York teamsters were categorized as an individual labor group and each of them had to be licensed by the mayor. This allowed the city to have control over the cost of transporting or delivering goods through its streets and as business endeavors in the metropolitan area increased, a variety of regulations were passed. This included specifications on cart sizes, speed zones, and preventive measures to deter noise and accidents. After the Revolutionary War, the New York City council maintained stringent control over the work of cart-men doorkeepers, butchers, and bakers. During this time cart-men made request to the council that would limit who could enter into their craft in 1785, which kept transient residents in the city during the summer out of their businesses. It wasn’t until 1790, which licenses as teamsters were sought after by the old, frail, and unskilled workers. According to Brill, â€Å"In 1792, the Cart-men's Society was founded for the relief of distressed members. In 1797, as a result of flagrant abuses by teamsters in New York City operating without a license and charging extortionate fees–all licenses were revoked. The cart-men were reorganized in groups of forty-nine, each headed by a foreman. In 1800, there were twenty such companies. Stiff penalties were imposed for violations of ordinances. † The International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) labor union has been more embroiled in jurisdictional cases and doppelganger unionism. When it was initially established, this union has been engaged in incessant critical disputes over jurisdiction. These disputes often affect many international unions, some associated either with the American Federation of Labor (AFL) or the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and those with no affiliation to either federation. The struggle of major concern was the inquiry of the proper union for a particular group of men, yet it entailed power over a precise job region. Many occurrences were an actual contest for power over a specific region and the complexity concerning jurisdiction that the teamsters have come upon has occurred due to the union making steady attempt s to expand. The incentives for such exploits were very diverse to include workers with functions closely related to others already performed by members of the union. In addition, the collaboration is essential for the triumphant exertion of economic strong hold among employers. Workers have also been organized to prevent their assimilation by a rival unions, with regions being expanded locally, helps to boost the power of local leaders and nationally expand Commercial and industrial enterprises. Daniel J. Tobin was the president of the Teamsters Union from 1907 TO 1952, which he grew and was not in control of the fiscal policies pursued by locals in the union. Tobin exerted a forceful authority over decisions which affected the relationship of the IBT with the other associations of the labor movement and he served as representative for a significant sector of the labor force. The power of Tobin was not challenged until 1930 when Dave Beck become known, with this Tobin’s rise to power was plodding. Tobin was born in Ireland in 1875 and in 1889 he journeyed alone to the United States. Tobin eventually became a driver-salesman, which lead him into the joining the local Team Drivers International (TDL) Union in Boston, Massachusetts. From there he became a member of Boston Local 25 and was chosen a representative to the Niagara Falls convention of 1903; it was at that convention that IBT was organized. According to Witwer, Tobin said: â€Å"When I returned I was discharged for being an agitator and found it difficult to find employment. I did find employment at $12 a week, working 12 hours a day. † Tobin ran for business representative for his local union in 1903 and after suffering from defeat (his only defeat while as a candidate for office within the labor movement). He proceeded to hold various offices within the Boston chapter when in August 1907, Daniel J. Tobin, became president of the Teamsters and Chauffeurs District Joint Council 10 of Boston. Serving as his campaign manage and a business agent in Local 25 John M. Gillespie, nominated Tobin for presidency of IBT, where as upon winning Tobin appointed Gillespie as the International Organizer for the New England division. This lifetime friendship led Gillespie to Indianapolis by Tobin in 1925 to take on the duties of assistant to the president. Subsequently, when Thomas L. Hughes died in 1941, Gillespie was appointed secretary-treasurer of the IBT and he was considered Tobin's most trusted associate in the union until his death in 1946. As has been indicated, upon obtaining the presidency, Tobin faced numerous serious problems and disparities. His own executive board created more problems by the division amongst the members. Four vice presidents joined into a rival force and voted together on most issues, which the other three vice presidents and secretary of treasurer were unable to match or break. Tobin had to break the four to four tie in many cases by casting the decisive ballot. The Teamsters Union in New York brought Tobin up on charges in 1908, claiming that he had been elected illegally in that years convention. The joint council contended that Local 25 was not in good standing with the IBT so, Tobin was ineligible for office. With such unruly and undermining schemes including acts of cultivating and persuading withdrawal from Local 25 by Tobin's opposition on the board with some of the members while serving as officers of the IBT at the same time organizing independent teamster unions. At the 1910 convention, Tobin accomplished extricating the remainder of opposition and for the next thirty years he was tterly unobstructed and uncontested in managing the affairs of the International Office. The union in the first ten years had its highest level of conflict within the organization, while in quite a few cases; officers of the IBT had acquired court sanctions restraining barred and obstinate locals with numerous techniques. Tobin's triumph with assembling the union was based upon his firm observance of avoidance (empathy action for other unions in trouble) and vigilant cost-conscious spending of union resources. With Tobin being in charge of a small yet powerful union, he anticipated the threat of repeating previous deeds which had made it susceptible in the past. With this in mind during 10907 and the early 1930’s the IBT avoided strikes, boycotts, and financial struggles assumed by other trade unions. Whereas, Tobin was extraordinary zealous guarding the treasury part of the union and the circumstances concerning strikes and lockouts were meticulously scrutinized before any benefits were paid out by the IBT to the local unions. With numerous rules and constitutional requirements being required before strike approval was approved by the IBT executive board. Tobin also sought to boost the finances; during his tenure of office as president; he fought for higher per capita taxes from the local teamster unions. Tobin would continuously boost with pride that being one of the larger labor organizations the Teamsters Union was insulated against economic loss due to a depression or bank failure. The biggest troubling factors in the first decade of Tobin's administration was the dissension within the union, the behavior the members in the local teamster unions, the secession interchanges conducted by different groups, and the existence of adversary and contending unions, in various parts of the nation. Chicago and New York were the hubs for the difficulties experienced under this regime, as a whole the teamsters were considered rather obstinate workers that exhibited a rough and idiosyncratic attitude. In 1906 there was more dissention at the convention which led to the creation of the United Teamsters of America (UTA). Chicago, New York City, and St. Louis, IBT lost it drew about 10,000 men to the UTA, which weakened the IBT, furthermore increased the membership of locals which had been independent in the past. Tobin worked hard to bring the men back into the IBT and was triumphant in implementing an arrangement in 1908 where the majority of the locals that had departed choose to return. Chicago continued with immense dissention where a significant number of unions continued to be separate. By bringing back the locals from New York (formerly UTA) and the designation of one of their leaders as a vice president of the IBT led to the withdrawal of a second group of locals. Many of the second group that had left the IBT had essentially returned in 1911, yet before this while trying to work out an agreement in 1909 Tobin was brutal beaten in New York City. In the attack, Tobin’s glasses were shattered, his ribs broken, and a complex fracture of his nose, but the worst was yet to come while he was hospitalized he ended up with blood poisoning and he lingered on the threshold of death. The separate unions in Chicago continued to prosper and ultimately an impasse was accomplished, drivers working in general trucking functions had an inferred status quo contract without going beyond the jurisdictional claims of the associated and separate locals. This realistic arrangement stayed unchanged until the early 1930's when some public officials applied force on the autonomous locals to join the IBT. These legislative officers were distressed by the magnitude of racketeering and mobster control in the teamsters unions in Chicago and believed unification would establish checks and balances on the powers of the local leaders. In Chicago the state of affairs progressively worsened, between 1928 and 1935, thugs from the Capone crew were in command of numerous locals of drivers. Some of the locals so dominated were affiliated with the IBT and others were independent and with these circumstances, violence was not uncommon. In 1932 Patrick Burrell of Chicago the vice president of the local union was shot to death in a struggle between organized labor and mobsters in a hail of bullets. The subsequent year Henry Burger, an international organizer operating in Chicago, was shot and seriously wounded, therein came the appointment of Daniel A. Gilbert as the chief investigator for the state's attorney's office in Cook County, Illinois, that law and order once again became the basis under which the locals operated. â€Å"Gilbert had strong support and encouragement from Thomas J. Courtney, the state's attorney, and Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago, with pressure from the businesses and the public had become somnolent from the immoderation of unionism about teamster unity and end labor discord and racketeering. † (Zeller) By 1934, many of the independent locals had joined the IBT while Courtney continued to aid the teamsters in their governmental efforts. There were other aggressive outbreaks in Chicago where labor was involved and in 1951, IBT officials in Chicago were anxious that the Capone crew would return with warfare breaking out all over the city. There was a public appeal for police protection against coercion by mobsters to the mayor by the vice president of the IBT William A. Lee. There were two murders, three brutal assaults, and four bombings between 1950 and 1951 of teamster officials in Chicago; with this the IBT did not ever have full power over workers working as drivers. The National War Labor Board (NWLB) acknowledged that the CIO controlled and represented trucking firms in other cities such as New Orleans and Detroit. Currently, the IBT is confronted with several of pockets of separatism throughout the nation. Tobin was able to combine and construct his power as president of the teamsters and become firmly embedded in office after 1910 due to no other member in the union gained national standing until the rise of Dave Beck. Tobin diligently avoided infuriating local leaders and except when circumstances were extraordinary or pressures were strong he refrained from intervening in local matters. With the power to appoint trustees in the local unions and joint councils where he felt officials were corrupt; Tobin to exerted substantial influence in dealing with locals. Very few complaints were made about Tobin’s abuse of power when appointing trustees; he progressively proceeded to expand the presidential term in office by increasing the time period between conventions. The time between conventions went from two years in 1908 to three years in 1912, and ultimately to five years in 1915 which helped in reducing the spending of the international union. Tobin argued that frequent conventions were unnecessary, while pointing out that the stoneworkers union was a fine organization even though it had held only one convention in twenty-eight years. Tobin broadened his labor connections, with the affiliation of the Canadian Trades and Labor Congress in 1920; then in 1928 affiliation with the building trades department of the AFL; and in 1948 with the International Transport Workers Federation. Tobin was reelected unanimously each time he ran for the office of general president, yet without ever having complete control of the convention. When Tobin made requests and recommendations concerning monetary matters he was unequivocally turned down time and time again. It took until 1920 for the monthly per capita to be increased from 15 cents to 30 cents; then it was increased again in 1952 to 40 cents. Tobin's main scheme, was to set up an international death benefit program under which the estate of each deceased member in good standing would receive a specified sum; this plan would increased the power of the IBT over the locals unions by giving the IBT control of a fund in which the individual members had an equity. In January 1929 a request made by the International Ladies Garment Workers Union (ILGWU) for financial assistance, due to the garment workers being confronted by some serious organizational struggles. The IBT grudgingly wrote the ILGWU that the board did not have the power to grant loans of any kind for any purpose, not even to one of its own locals. As the Teamsters Union strengthened, Tobin's reputation increased, he began to implement his authority as the representative of the AFL at the British Trades Union Congress, and as a delegate to the International Federation of Trade Unions in Amsterdam, Holland. Samuel Gompers gave great opposition to Tobin being elected treasurer of the AFL in 1917; he supported John B. Lennon, who had been the treasurer for the previous twenty-eight years. As a member of the executive council of the AFL, Tobin became one of its most imperative and vocal constituents while when John L. Lewis ran for AFL president, Tobin served as Gompers' campaign manager. With numerous differences over the issues of policy within the executive council Tobin threatened to resign several times, yet he was convinced not to on every occasion. Although in 1928 with another dispute with the executive council concerning the endorsement of Alfred E. Smith as a candidate as the President of the United States, Tobin resigned as treasurer. Tobin recommended that the offices of secretary and of treasurer of the AFL be consolidated when he left his post, this was enacted in 1935, under Tobin’s leadership in becoming the ninth AFL president in 1934. The Federation increased the number of men in this office from eight to fifteen, while Tobin became a vice president of the building trades department of the AFL. Tobin progressed in the chain of command of the labor movement; his union was concurrently gaining power and size. The AFL was revived in 1933 due to the decision of the Teamsters Union to organize everything on wheels; this is when the IBT became the most powerful union in the country. Threats to stop deliveries to and from companies who refused accept terms of the teamsters allowed them to gain contracts in trucking and related industries. The IBT gave support to other unions engaged in picketing or bargaining negotiations which strengthened the position of these unions and fortified their objectives. Unions organizing workers who were working in small numbers in regular establishments, were they became dependent on the teamsters for assistance, with the division in the AFL in 1935, Tobin continued his opposition to the growth of industrial unions. He asserted that it was not possible to organize the steelworkers; Tobin was fighting for the separation of teamsters from other workers. Tobin became the dominant core of labor leaders which favored craft unionism and he unequivocally maintained that industrial unionism would cause more hardship to the teamsters than to any other trade union. With the split between the AFL and CIO being complete, Tobin was one of the first labor leaders who strongly advocated reunification; he vigorously championed a plea by President Roosevelt for unity in the labor movement despite the rather cool reception which the message received from the other union heads present. Tobin was among the opposition to amending the Wagner Act, to make its stipulations more acceptable to the AFL. Supporters of the AFL contended that a majority of the members of the NLRB were prejudiced in favor of the CIO; it was believed that changes in laws would be more favorable to employers. Tobin aggressively opposed the communists and had them outlawed from the IBT, with his serious dislike of Harry Bridges of the longshoremen's union and his displeasure with John L. Lewis of the mine workers. The consequences with the fight for power within the Teamsters Union under the administration of Beck became apparent with the expulsion of the International Longshoremen's Association from the AFL. At the beginning of 1956, the election race for the presidency of the teamster’s joint council in New York City took place; the national leaders of the union had to make their positions known. With internal dissension at an all time high the impression of complete harmony on the general executive board came under public scrutiny, disclosure of the level of bitterness and conflict within the union indicate that it is one of the most important of the past fifty years. While Tobin held the top post in the union most members were afraid to challenge his control, due to his effective leadership; and the decentralization of the local leaders, caused sovereignty within their own unions. The local unions did not particularly aspire to expand their authority, with the arrival of Beck and the conference technique of organization, the progression of centralization began. Tobin fought hard and unsuccessfully to prevent the progression of centralization, eventually Beck had his way and gained much power even before he took over the leadership. At the beginning of his administration as general president, Dave Beck foresaw a strong centralized union with power vested in his hands looking toward the elimination of racketeering and corruption. To this end, Beck intensified his endeavors to complete the creation of conferences, with the size of the union and the colossal burden which his office entailed, Beck attempted to stay clear of direct contact with organizational and bargaining work with regards to issues in policy formation and jurisdictional problems. It was under these conditions that Jimmy Hoffa, was able to emerge as a rival to Beck who did not see his rapid rise and independence as a threat. By the time Beck recognized the problems Hoffa brought to the organization it was too late for Beck to extricate him without shaking the foundation of the union and risking defeat in his own objectives. Over the years Beck and Hoffa have tangled on many concerns yet formed alliances in other instances, both men recognized and appreciated the strength of the other. Given Beck's rise to the presidency, the struggle between them has solidified even further, Hoffa has said, â€Å"Although he takes orders from Beck, Beck does not raise questions as to how they are carried out. (Friedman and Schwarz) The modern record of the Teamsters Union may be implicit in the terms of the activities and goals of Beck and Hoffa, during the severe depression of the 1930’s; union activity was a perilous endeavor for those who had jobs. Hoffa, along with four other men who are currently still trusted affiliates of his staff, commenced to systematize the 175 workers in the warehouse as an independen t union, that went on strike just as a highly perishable load of strawberries arrived to be unloaded. In needing the workers to work, management had to realize the seriousness of the strike which led to some concession to pacify the workers. Within months a charter from the AFL was received making the independent Kroger group a federal labor union, Detroit was not a strong union center in 1932. There were few IBT locals in Detroit with roughly 500 members, Hoffa sought affiliation with the Teamsters Union and was given the charter of Local 674. Hoffa then proceeded to create an alliance with Local 299, which was then under trusteeship of the IBT, in debt, and without contracts this allowed his expansion program to begin. One of Hoffa's first and most ambitious ventures as a delegate of the teamsters were to organize the truckers, drivers, and car hauler workers, commencing between 1933 and 1935 was met the vicious conflicts of the automobile manufacturers. The automobile manufactures established a division within the IBT and Hoffa became the negotiating chairman which contributed to his rise through the ranks. Hoffa was elected president of Local 299 which has 16,000 members and 800 contracts with employers, within three years Hoffa became chairman of the central states drivers’ council. When the Michigan Conference of Teamsters was organized Hoffa was elected president, which led to him being appointed by Tobin to fill a vacancy in the office of international trustee. Hoffa’s rise through the ranks continued when he was elected president of Joint Council 43 of Detroit, like Beck, Hoffa is unrelenting and avoided liquor and tobacco, yet, he used foul language when speaking. In his extensive traveling on union business Hoffa was not concerned with political ideas or labor idealism, he attempted to bring about instantaneous improvements in the wages, hours, and working conditions of the teamsters. Hoffa has a vast and accurate knowledge of trucking operations; he was very familiar with the economics and he drove a hard bargain while adhering strictly to the contract provisions he negotiates. Hoffa brought stability in working conditions to trucking with questionable associates and shady business activities and connections. Hoffa's emergence from violent and ambiguous surroundings occurred with the development of maturity and the passage of time, this transformation reminds one of the evolutionary growths of other high leaders in the Teamsters Union. The vice president of the San Francisco IBT Michael â€Å"Bloody Mike† Casey, helped set up the general trucker’s local and earned his nickname in a violent and prolonged strike the in 1901. The nickname Casey had gotten became a term of affection, and when he died in 1937 he was a solid and respected citizen among leaders of the civic and industrial life of San Francisco. When Hoffa was elected to vice president of the IBT in 1952, Tobin said to the convention, â€Å"He is the biggest small man in Detroit. When you go to Detroit today you hear about Hoffa, but you do not hear a word about Henry Ford. As I said, he is a very big small man and he is one man we developed in our time. He is pretty nearly civilized now, but I knew him when he wasn't. † (Dobbs) The newly organized IBL was unable to defeat the barred organization in two NLRB representation elections at the port of New York, despite the strong support of the AFL. Resulting in employers on the water front being forced to come to terms with the independent ILA, this meant that teamsters continued their close contact with members of the ILA while performing the work of moving waterfront freight. Moreover, some ILA leaders had friends among teamster officials both Hoffa and John J. O'Rourke (president of Local 282) had close ties with the ILA. Hoffa's main objective was to develop the influence and membership of the teamsters by undertaking bold organizing activities in the southern states for this purpose and felt that the assistance of the ILA was both necessary and valuable in his project. Realistic considerations swayed Beck and slowly weakened his original resolution and adamancies with feelings of antipathy and distrust between Meany and Beck influencing the situation. Evidence of the discord between the two men came to the surface when Meany resisted Beck's election to the executive council of the AFL, when he fought hard to frustrate the teamster machinations to absorb the expelled ILA, when he successfully maneuvered to overcome teamster resistance to merger of the AFL and CIO, and when he forced the IBT to accept limited representation in the industrial union department. At one point, Beck publicly announced that he would never be a candidate for the presidency of the AFL and on other occasions he stated that he stanchly supported Meany for the office. Ensuing to the rejection by the AFL of efforts by the IBT to absorb the ILA, Hoffa undertook to negotiate an agreement to put the ILA under the domination of the teamsters; he envisioned a possible merger of the two unions. Aside from the fact that the longshoremen's union had 60,000 members who might be absorbed, there were mutual benefits to be derived from an agreement, teamsters and longshoremen work closely in port areas. With cargo freight being loaded and unloaded by longshoremen in trucks manned by teamsters, the IBT was strong in the Great Lakes ports, where the ILA is weak, while the ILA is in a position to help the IBT organize the South. With several preliminary discussions in 1955 the delegates to the ILA convention approved a working alliance with the teamsters, the last draft of the pact was left to a special subcommittee with the evident that upon its conclusion it would be subject to a membership referendum. As negotiations continued there seemed to be some loss of interest in the project on the part of longshoremen, the mutual assistance pact was between the independent longshoremen's union and three conferences of the IBT (central states, eastern, and southern). This gave a joint organization of work by the two unions, the cost to be apportioned by agreement; uniform labor contract expiration dates; and continued independent status of the ILA, except if both unions mutually agreed to a change. In the beginning the president of the ILA William V. Bradley, expected Beck to give his approval to the alliance and that members of both unions would be asked to ratify it. However Beck kept his distance from that debate, he stated that the document did not need his endorsement since it involved the regional conferences and did not conflict with the international constitution. With the new pact being placed in effect and the subdivisions of the international union were free to make loans to the ILA. With the expansion of the industry the IBT has grown, with that the union does not ordinarily invade jurisdictions of other trade unions. They have gained membership from employees of warehouses, canneries, and food processing plants, the success of the Teamsters Union has given it so much occupational and industrial diversification that it took on the form of a general labor union. If the teamsters were to decide to move in the direction of converting their union into a general catchall organization, the labor movement in the United States may be headed into a new structural phase comparable to the emergence of industrial unions in the 1930's as the equals of the craft unions. Although elected officials retain office for long periods on a national and local basis, there is insurmountable evidence of democracy operating within the union in the historical inability of the IBT leadership to dominate the convention completely. However, the membership continues to reelect officers who have brought about great improvements in conditions of employment and raised wages in the industry from a relatively low level to a high one. The union has succeeded in confidently establishing itself as a powerful organization, with vigorous actions and unruly behavior. Racketeering within the IBT was limited to locals and local leaders until 1957 and the national officers seemed eager to eliminate these instances. Viewpoints of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and its leading officials followed in the tradition of Samuel Gompers and the other founders of the American Federation of Labor. Economics were the focus of the union, while attempting to stay out of the political arena, with the improvement of wages, hours, and working conditions being of the biggest concern. Some of the IBT leaders and locals were more politically cognizant, for example Harold J. Gibbons (St. Louis Local 688) and Robert I. Wishart (Minneapolis Local 1145), these were exceptions. The union is constantly on the alert for ways of bettering the economic position of its members: operating on the principle that the end justifies the means and that in order to improve the economic status of teamster’s pressure devices of all sorts may be used and assistance accepted from all persons who can help. Hoffa has said: â€Å"What we want we try to get. What we have we keep. † (Dobbs) The implication in this thought process where as vigorous organizational tactics must be pursued, hot cargo clauses in contracts and aggressive picketing leads to a strong union. Rejections from the union insist on restraint from utilizing any outside sources, whether by courts or Congressional committees. Investigations are considered interference with the rights of leaders to conduct union affairs. The IBT has strength with truck drivers, comprising about a third of its membership, hold jobs with tactical importance that enables the union to exert vast pressure on almost all industries. The usual driver is young, tough, individualistic, and stable, where they usually rise through the ranks in the trucking industry and are well prepared for challenges from their drivers. Under such conditions, substantial contact between management and workers during stressful times between them was not surprising and did not cause undue anxiety. People within the industry were not shocked by these issues and the upper ranks of teamster leadership adopted a policy that was forcefully supported by Hoffa that men may continue to work on behalf of the union regardless of any charges or indictments against as long as they have not been convicted of a major crime in the courts. The stance on this issue is based on the concept that leaders who are useful to the IBT should not be abandoned until they have had their day in court and there has never been any doubt in the minds of the heads of the organization that a successful labor leader must be prepared to move from an office to a picket line or to jail in the interests of his union. It is an unwritten rule within the unions that dedication to union service should be thorough and that it is how one reaches the highest achievement, no efforts are spared. In recent years, the leaders of the IBT have recognized greatly that they must be prepared to speak to university students or public organizations, in addition to their own membership, when the occasion warrants. Yet modesty has not been a trait of leadership in the Teamsters Union, the heads of the organization have used their power to reach for more power. With a poor reputation and tough behavior of the Teamsters Union there were various misgivings amongst the general public and in the ranks of organized labor. Heads of other trade unions have been apprehensive that teamster methods will bring stricter governmental laws and regulation of labor but they have also feared the jurisdictional incursions of the IBT and the increasing power wielded by its officers. Labor leaders recognize that the men running the Teamsters Union, on the whole, have been working for the benefit of members of the organization although many question the personal ethics and conduct of teamster officials and feel that not much consideration is given to the needs and interests of the remainder of the labor movement. History is full with evidence of the dependence of many sectors of labor unionism on the success of the teamsters in organizing or striking an employer. Unions therefore must deal carefully with the IBT since their main purposes may become more difficult or even impossible to achieve by disassociating or expelling the Teamsters Union from any community of labor. Whether the IBT can eradicate undesirable practices in which it is engaged and the distasteful business dealings, by which it is marked will be determined with the progress of the Teamsters in the future. The problem is extremely difficult because the membership is dominated by exhaustion and fear with its officers and due to the combined strength of the leaders is greater than that of the rank and file. The union needs some guidance from responsible leaders of the AFL-CIO and from some of those of its own officials who are impeccable. To remove any questions of corruption and racketeering within the Teamsters nationwide will require firm, legislative pressures by the federal government that will force the abandonment of dishonesty and criminal activities. Bibliography Brill, S. The Teamsters. Simon and Schuster. 1978. Dobbs, F. Teamster Power. Pathfinder Press. 1973. Friedman, A. and Schwarz, T. Power and Greed: Inside the Teamsters Empire of Corruption. Danbury, CT: Franklin Watts. 1989. Jablonski, D. The ‘Culture of Corruption’ Will Be Just Fine, Thank You. AFL-CIO | American Federation of Labor – Congress of Industrial Organizations 2009. Retrieved from; http://www. aflcio. org/, on July 17, 2009 Teamsters Reaffirm Support of Anti-Corruption Effort. http://www. teamster. org/ Witwer. D. Corruption and Reform in the Teamsters Union. University of Illinois Press. 2008. Zeller, F. C. D. Devil's Pact: Inside the World of the Teamsters Union. Carol Publishing Group.

Cormac McCarthy’s The Road Essay

Life can be cruel.   In most cases, it squeezes the hell out of us.   Nevertheless, the challenge is to come out unscathed.   But do we always achieve this?   And if so, what do we get out of every excruciating pain we have to endure?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The road to recovery has so many twists and turns.   It is a test of strength but more so of faith.   It is about believing in something we do not even see.   The kind of person we become out of life’s most ultimate test defines who we are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   How many of us could actually say that living life is a breeze?   Who have not known pain?   Who can claim that life was pure pleasure?   Who has never cried a tear?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All of us have been tested by time at one time or the other.   We have been bitten by its pangs a couple of times over.   We have been bloodied at countless instances.   We have cried a pail full of tears.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Yet, we continue to breathe.   The sun sets and rises every single day of our lives.   We battle it out today for tomorrow has a challenge of its own.   We have to gain as much strength as we have lost or if possible, much greater.   This is all because pain will not die at the end of day.   Most probably, it will wake up the same morning we open our eyes from sleep. Throughout the course of our life’s struggle we do not usually travel alone.   Someone keeps us company.   Even just for a while, we journey life’s path with a companion.   It makes the burden a lot easier and even more meaningful.   We are reminded that life after all is about building relationships that sees us through the most trying of times. Life gives us people to guide and accompany us as we thread down the road.   Sometimes they live long enough to witness our feat.   But usually they do not.   Nevertheless, they serve their purpose. They provide comfort whenever we are afraid.   They wipe our tears dry and lull us to sleep to regain lost strength.   They give us hope in the most miserable of circumstances.   They teach us to see another day as a chance to turn things around.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When every one else have left, who do we turn to?   When the material wealth we have is none, how can we move on?   When fate turns against us, what is the chance for survival?   When it seems to be the world versus one man, is success hiding beneath the clouds of doubt? Whenever life robs us of our possessions, may we find comfort in knowing that we have not lost it all.   Our family will remain to be the wealth exclusively our own.   Neither fate nor circumstance can take it away from us.   It is something ours, and ours alone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A father’s love can be the only thing that can make us possibly walk another mile.   It could ease the pain in our hearts knowing that someone is guiding us through.   Whenever doubt seems to restrict every movement we make, let us be reminded that our father’s strength runs through our veins.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The story about a father and a son is not uncommon for many of us.   Universal as a literary theme is its message.   It transcends age, culture, race and tradition.   It speaks a language known by all.   It is something that lives and outlives generations and beyond.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A father and son’s story is about strength.   It is about keeping tears from falling even if you just wanted to succumb and cry.   It is about learning to be a man as fate continues to challenge his ability to remain brave and undefeated. Nothing can be more painful than seeing death happen right through our very eyes.   Nothing can be more frightening than the thought that the next victim could possibly be me.   Nothing can be more frustrating than realizing that tomorrow will just be like any other day of violence and death.   Nothing can be much harder than believing that things happen for a reason.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   How can we possibly live when life on earth seems to be empty, both literally and figuratively?   We all know that it would not always be a bed of roses.   But why does it seem to be usually a bed of thorns?   How much pain can a man endure?   What is the real essence of suffering?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cormac McCarthy’s novel entitled The Road, is dedicated to his son, John Francis McCarthy. The novel a finalist of the National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction and a recipient of both the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and the Pulitzer Price for fiction unfolds the journey of a man and a boy across a post – apocalyptic panorama.   The background signifies what was left after a great cataclysm made existence on this earth almost unheard of (McCarthy, 2006). Whoever said that life must go on may not know of a lot about surviving death.   Whenever we witness death, it feels like a part of us has also stopped breathing.   It leaves us numb and unaware that the world around us continues to run its course. Life must go on indeed.   This statement must be true after all.   No matter how hard and how unimaginable it may seem we are all compelled to do it just the same.   We cannot pause for a moment and recollect our lost selves before anything else.   Time passes by and once lost, it can never be regained.   Sometimes, we just got to keep on moving no matter what.   Move on and go on and trust that life may lead us to rest right when we need it the most. Death should remind us that life is lived just once.   We may not be able to control what lies on the bend of the road, but we still have to thread it, nevertheless.   Death reminds us that we have to give meaning to our existence.   This is the challenge we all have to face. In the dark tunnel of death, life is the light at the end of it.   It may be seen as a symbol of a cycle.   Every end can be the start of something new.   For every chapter of life that has been told precedes another story yet to unfold. This is but the cycle of life.   It is a never ending story about life and death.   More importantly, it is a challenge of living a life of worth to make death as important.   For death could mean something only if the life lost left a void. There may be times when giving up is all too tempting.   Enduring the most painful events of life is really too exhausting.   These are the moments when we beg of death.   These are the times when life appears to be worthless.   We are sometimes too consumed by pain that we seem to believe that life is hell on earth. Life does not come without pain.   Every once in a while or sometimes a little too often pain is thrown on our way.   Whenever it does, it reminds us that we are very much alive.   It makes us feel so human.   It makes things so real.   The sweetness of pain lies on our ability to bear its bitterness. Even so, life may not really be all about pain and suffering.   We can surely get some sweetness from it when we squeeze it dry.   There is some kind of balance in the world we live in.   Goodness surely lies on some corner.   It may take time and a lot of effort in between, but it is there as it has always been. The most challenging of all circumstances teaches a lesson or two.   Things happen not to make man resolve into thinking that life is a crazy game of pessimism.   While there is ruthlessness, there is goodness. Goodness comes in the most unexpected of packages.   It comes during the most unanticipated of times.   It comes when we have almost given up.   It comes at just the right moment to remind us that it was worth it to hold on. Holding on is oftentimes the only thing left to do.   It may not be the most logical but it could possibly be the most practical.   Some people come into our lives and quietly go but they leave us a message that speaks so clear and sound.   It is from strangers that we gain the wisdom we would not have otherwise known. And this could be the beauty of life.   That after all the pain, we may be able to smile again.   Just when we thought that we can never know life to be kind, someone teaches us the value of optimism.   When gravity seems to pull us down while trying to hold on with all our might, a helping hand extends for the taking. Just when we get so near the end of our rope, let us find comfort that someone is at the other end to take over.     Ã‚  They pull us through when we might have lost all the strength that is left.   They are once a stranger we crossed paths with.   But before the road takes us to yet another bend, each other are no more strangers.   For that walk we shared has left some of the most important lessons we can never forget. Life is hard but we are tougher.   It can take away everything but we can always leave some bit of hope deep inside our hearts.   We may not have anymore tears left to cry.   We may be left with broken bones and battered ego.   But if we continue to struggle along the road and combat every imaginable obstacle there is, we can still be hailed victors of the finest kind. May we not lose hope on the promise of yet another sunrise no matter how painful life has made known itself to man.   Life takes on a whole new meaning when it is lived not for thy self.   A life lived in this way is noble in all the ways that matter. References BBC.co.uk. (2007, April 17). Novelist McCarthy wins Pulitzer. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/6563291.stm Chabon, M. The New York Review of Books. (2007, February 15). After the Apocalypse. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19856. Conlon, M. Reuters. (2007, June 5). Writer Cormac McCarthy confides in Oprah Winfrey. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSN0526436120070605?pageNumber=1. Empire. (2007, April 2). John Hillcoat Hits The Road An adaptation of Cormac McCarthy’s novel. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://www.empireonline.com/news/story.asp?NID=20573. Guardian.co.uk. (2007, October 30). Civilisation ends with a shutdown of human concern.   Are we there already? Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/story/0,,2201594,00.html. Jones, M. (2006). On the Lost Highway. Newsweek. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://services.newsweek.com//search.aspx?offset=0&pageSize=10&sortField=pu bdatetime&sortDirection=descending&mode=summary&q=on+the+lost+highway &site-search-submit.x=33&site-search-submit.y=7 Keller, J. (2007). Oprah’s selection a real shocker; Winfrey, McCarthy strange bookfellows. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1246151131.html?dids=12461 51131:1246151131&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+29 %2C+2007&author=Julia+Keller&pub=Chicago+Tribune&edition=&startpage=1 &desc=Oprah%27s+selection+a+real+shocker+. Kennedy, W. (2001). Left Behind. The New York Times. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/books/review/Kennedy.t.html?ex=1189396800&en=6d113b5a5cbaf19b&ei=5070 McCarthy, C. (2006). The Road. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. National Book Critics Circle. (2006). NBCC Awards Finalists. Retrieved February 26, 2008, from http://www.bookcritics.org/?go=finalists

Fat Burning Myths and Aerobics

For the past twenty years, everyone followed fitness professionals, nutritionists, dieticians and aerobic instructors repeated recommendations to follow a low fat diet and attend aerobic classes twice a week. According to experts, low fat diets and aerobic exercise were the only effective way to lose weight. Rapid increase of qualified fitness professionals only accomplished teaching everyone endless ways of how not to lose weight, or which exercise habits do not work. Professionals have yet to come up with resolutions that do burn fat. â€Å"It’s a Fact–Americans are getting fatter. Experts suggest that 75 percent of Americans will be overweight by 2015, and 41 percent of that group will be obese. Along with our burgeoning waistlines, the business of weight loss has become huge.†(Villarosa, 2007)   When aerobics for weight loss are encouraged by any professional, including medical doctors, it is assumed the only acceptable form of aerobics were organized class es through a qualified instructor. Although the only visible evidence aerobic classes and low fat diets trim waistlines are only words written on paper, people continue to be deceived into thinking they can purchase their ideal fitness levels.The market is flooded with a new fitness facility on every corner, a new diet, or new weight loss video created based on latest breakthrough research. New fitness programs based on the latest breakthrough research have been created for the past twenty five years with each new weight loss book, video or diet leading consumers farther from their fitness goals.With promises of weight loss, aerobic classes increased in popularity overnight. Falling short of the improved fitness promises, aerobic classes remain popular. The industry attract customers using fitness promises to sell their products. Knowledgeable professionals use their education to gain peoples trust. There are an abundance of fitness professionals to explain technical details of the human system, naming scientific names for every muscle in the body. Educating the public with all this physiological knowledge does not result in more fat burning during aerobic classes.When fitness programs fail to keep their promises, even with financial obligations, or the trial period to return the item has passed, the focus switches off fitness goals. Fitness myths continue because lies are always explained away. After realizing one hour aerobics class twice a week is hardly vigorous enough to shed a pound, dietary habits are blamed.After exposure of dietary myths, experts blame hereditary.   Popular fitness magazines write informative articles bringing newfound knowledge to customers explaining the cardio system and it relates to aerobics. The only people who will waste time reading article after article or listening to sales people’s lectures on human anatomy are the ones trying to tell someone the fitness advice is not delivering the promised results. People are tol d losing weight is beyond their capacity when there are no visible results from aerobic classes.With professional’s enthusiasm to educate every client on scientific details of fitness, basic commonsense diet and exercise understanding is forgotten. The intensity level involving any activity determines weight loss results. It is common knowledge that excess body weight is unused calories or unused energy. Repeated muscle contraction burns up energy. The faster and more frequent the muscular contractions, more energy is consumed, muscles become fitter, stronger and more efficient. Stronger, fitter muscles move easier, allowing more calorie consumption during everyday routine activities.â€Å"The energy required for muscle contraction comes from the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a substance that is present in the cells and is formed during cellular respiration.†(â€Å"Muscle,† 2007)   In simple terms, ATP is the scientific procedures explaining how v igorous exercise or repeated rapid muscle contraction burns stored body fat. Muscles, proteins, and engaged cells break down the stored energy the same way during aerobics, power walking, rollerblading, weight training, biking, mountain climbing, running stairs, or playing basketball.Analyzing the term aerobic can give someone the misconception long term endurance exercising is essential for weight loss. Aerobic relates to oxygen or air. An aerobically fit person understandably has a healthy respiratory system. Anaerobic is the opposite of aerobic, using maximum muscular strength. â€Å"Anaerobic endurance is a short-term, high intensity muscular effort–less than about two minutes; cardiovascular endurance involves muscular effort for a much longer duration.†(Brzycki, 1993)   For years, experts believed a person could not exercise the muscular system and the cardio system simultaneously without sustaining serious injury or building oversized muscles.â€Å"Keep in mi nd that compared to fat, muscle is very dense. Increase your muscle mass and your metabolism gets an automatic boost. Muscle weighs more than fat so it's possible to build muscle mass and gain weight but appear smaller visually because you've decreased your overall fat percentage.† (Hanlon, 2007, p. 28) Adding weights to a cardio workout increases muscular contraction’s capacity, making the ATP breakdown more thorough. Aerobic classes, the most moderate walking program and even daily tasks such as shopping or house cleaning potentially engages higher percentage of working muscles adding ankle and wrist weights.â€Å"When you exercise, your muscles burn sugar, fat or protein in the presence of oxygen to produce energy. If you exercise so intensely that you become short of breath and your muscles can't get enough oxygen, lactic acid accumulates in your muscles.   Lactic acid removes the chloride, so it is easier for potassium to get back inside cells. Therefore lactic acid increases the ratio of potassium inside cells to the amount outside, and this helps the muscle contract with more efficiency.† (â€Å"Study: Lactic Acid Not,† 2007, p. C10) Combining weight training with aerobic activity decreases the exerciser’s size.Cardio training can be fast weight lifting. Depending on gender, and as long as no supplements are used, the amount of weight during workout routines does not determine muscle size. People working towards a visually larger appearance lift weights very slowly, making sure to workout the muscles on the release. This is called working out the negative muscles. Either light weights or heavy weights used at a very slow speed will increase body size. Working out with heavy or light weights at aerobic pace utilizes fast twitch muscle fibers reducing body size. Anaerobic exercises or exercise strategies using fast-twitch muscle fibers are effective for fat burning.Experts never encourage vigorous exercise; it is up to the individual to experiment with effective fat burning exercises. The fitness industry, including fitness magazines, is designed for people who have very little or no previous knowledge of workouts. The term aerobic directly relating to the cardiovascular system is one of the reasons it was the only effective exercises resulting in fat loss.   High speed muscle contraction, the build up of lactic acid, the breakdown of ATP, burns up stored fat. Endurance or aerobic training takes a long time to get muscles to the point of exhaustion. Using muscles to their maximum cannot be taught in a one hour aerobic class because the weakest fitness levels must be considered when choreographing such exercise sessions.ReferencesBourne, G. H. (Ed.). (1960). The Structure and Function of Muscle. New York: Academic Press. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o;d=91183119Brzycki, M. (1993). Strength Testing – Predicting a One-Rep Max from Reps-to-Fa tigue. JOPERD–The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 64(1), 88+. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002191543Muscle. (2007). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o;d=112875101Adenosine Triphosphate. (2007). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o;d=112842222Hanlon, K. (2007, June). Health and Fitness: Strong . and Lean. Dance Magazine, 81, 28. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o;d=5021239018Study: Lactic Acid Not So Bad. (2007, May 20). The Washington Times, p. C10. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o;d=5020836376Villarosa, A. (2007, October). Fat vs. Fad: Demystifying Diet and Exercise Programs. Ebony, 62, 165+. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o;d=5023144778

American University and the Best Realization of the Desires Essay

American University and the Best Realization of the Desires - Essay Example In process of my study at AU, I also want to take part in AU abroad activities which will allow me to study in China during my undergraduate program. AU also will give me a good ability to study customs and traditions of other nations, especially China – it will help me understand deep economic, social and cultural processes taking place in China and in the rest of the world. I am also going to graduate from American University with honours. After graduation from AU, I am going to obtain a Chinese Law degree, and I suppose that American University will give me a great ability for my professional development. American University will expand my educational and personal horizons and help wide my real-world learning experiences. American University will also give me the ability to become a part of the generation of highly educated leaders who have gone through such intensive, prestigious and useful educational institution as American University. In addition to that, I have some pr ofessional and personal traits which will help me achieve success in my study at AU and make an appropriate career in the fields of my interest. I am a steady and stable person, and I know my goals and purposes rather well. In addition to that, I am rather thoughtful and concentrated for my educational and professional goals, and American University will provide the best realization of my desires. I want to take part in the China Project. After graduation, I also plan to return to the USA to pursue a Masters in Law degree.

Knowledge Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Knowledge Management - Essay Example This has led to the focus on informal social processes that make tacit knowledge explicit. The corporate environment emphasizes the need to leverage their knowledge base to gain competitive advantage (Carter & Scarbrough, 2001). This has led to the packaging and commoditization of knowledge management programmes. Knowledge cannot be the exclusive property of the individuals or the groups. The concept of KM is a response to the needs of the organizations to intensify the creation and exploitation of knowledge. Tacit knowledge is embedded in narratives and is articulated in the stories that circulate in organizations. Through story telling the tacit dimension of knowledge becomes easily visible. This paper will describe the process of story telling and narratives through examples. Story has been defined as ‘ante’ to narrative; it is ‘ante-narrative’. A narrative is something that is narrated or a story (Bhardwaj & Monin, 2006). While story is an account of incidents or events, narrative comes after and makes the story coherent. Since story comes before the narrative it is known as ante-narrative and narrative is post-story. In the organizational context, story has been defined as the written and spoken experiences of the employees in the social, psychological and cultural context in which the organization operates. Narrative and story telling are human endeavors to make sense of a complicated reality. Stories are a means of connecting events and deciding what is important. Several people may observe the same public event and come away with different perceptions as human beings have the capacity to alter and direct their perceptions (Sax, 2006a). Stories were developed as a means to deal with â€Å"information overload†. It is sued by human beings to organize and process their experiences. Storytelling has a sensuality that places it close to experience. Stories evoke sights, smells and sound which philosophies and precepts do not. The term

Cultural Issues in Public Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural Issues in Public Schools - Essay Example Before going to discuss cultural issues in public schools and their association with anthropology, let us get a better understanding of what culture actually is. Culture represents customs and traditions, which people belonging to any specific country or society adopt. If we talk about culture with respect to the concept of culture in public schools, we can say that culture of public schools depends on the overall culture of a country. If a country is diverse ethnically and culturally, the culture of the public schools will also be diverse which will raise cultural issues in the schools along with some benefits for the students. The thesis statement of this paper is that ‘Cultural issues that occur in public schools of culturally diverse countries affect the overall culture of the public schools’. Cultural Issues in Public Schools Cultural issues in public schools refer to those issues, which occur between the students belonging to different cultures and societies. â€Å"Cultural diversity in the classroom opens the minds of students to an enriching experience† (Borkar, 2010). .In a society having the diverse culture, different kinds of cultural issues occur along with benefits for students. Some of the common examples of cultural issues in public schools include the low level of understanding between students, discrimination, and language proficiency.

Social learning theory by Albert Bandura Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Social learning theory by Albert Bandura - Essay Example The behaviors acquired by individuals usually learned to use observation through modeling. People observe other people’s actions and activities, and then the behaviors performed. Resulting to coding of information, this serves as a guide for their actions. Learning, therefore, becomes the critical issue to be considered. Realization of effective learning has been made possible through the availability of learning theories. Learning theories are framework describing different ways of absorbing information, processing, and how this information is normally retained during the process of learning. Learning is significant in bringing out cognitive, environmental influences, emotional and experience for acquiring different qualities. These qualities include values; effecting changes in the individual’s knowledge and how they view the world learning theories have of significance in the definition of personal philosophies especially to teachers. Learning theories normally categ orized into different categories, which include behaviorism, constructivism and cognitive. Behaviorism learning put emphasis on aspects, which can be observed, cognitive learning, on the other hand, cognitive learning theories not only looks at the observable behaviors, but also tries to explain learning, which are mainly becoming brain-based. Constructivism, however, looks learning as a process where the learner builds new concepts and ideas. Albert Bandura is one of the known theorists who contributed significantly in learning theories; he came up with the social learning theory (McLeod, 2011). The social learning theory is a class of behaviorism theory; the theory is most significant in criminology. Albert Bandura believed that aggression in learning, which normally learned through behavior modeling. The theorist hold a believe that violent tendencies by individuals usually not inherited but rather modeled through various principles. He argued that persons acquire responses throu gh observing other people’s behavior, by means of media, environment or observing personally. He then stated that individuals holds a believe that aggression mainly accompanied by reinforcements. The reinforcements usually formulated into tension reduction, building of self-esteem, acquiring financial rewards and gaining praise from others. Albert Bandura in his Bobo doll experiment, find out how children would imitate the adults when they are aggressive when they gain rewards, his interest was largely in development of a child. He believed that early diagnosis of aggression in children would lead to children reframing from becoming adult criminals. He then argued children aggression normally influenced by the reinforcement they acquire from their family members, environment and the media. Albert Bandura’s experiment, the Bobo doll experiment, t is significant because it triggers several studies to be conducted concerning the effects of social learning theory. The topi c was significant in that it will determine the extent of aggression among children, in relation to observational learning. Albert Bandura the father of social learning theory was born in 1925, in Mundare Canada. In his early stages of life, Bandura was raised in a small farming community, in his hometown, in Canada. In 1949, Bandura received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of British Colombia he also obtains his Ph.D in 1952 from the Universi

E-learning across mobile platform applications (m-learning) Thesis Proposal

E-learning across mobile platform applications (m-learning) - Thesis Proposal Example Mobiles are playing an important role in learning process characterized by their ability to incorporate transportable devices used in the learning process. Since several years, usage of m-learning technologies for teaching and learning purposes has been increasing across the globe, and technology development made m-learning is an accessible tool evens for the physically challenged people (Kiernan, & Aizawa, 2004). Using mobile technology for deaf language is really invaluable, and can improve learners’ learning and communication capacity, but is not economical for poor and developing countries. In addition, texting in a foreign language may be difficult if people who are deaf having limited English ( Thornton, & Houser, 2005). For technicians also it a challenging task as they have to keep up their skill for the requirements of the growing market. They have to provide technical support for hands on practice whenever needs, and trained children. It burdens more on the company as it has to invest money for the research purpose. It has an intention of guiding, and providing an opportunity for hearing impaired students to improve their learning, and communication experiences using mobile technology. At the same time creation of mobile environment for social interactions where students are able to follow the content through their personal digital assistants without affecting time and place. Generally, students with hearing loss would face great difficulty in acquiring languages, and they have to use aid for hearing. They may face problems while understanding the speech of others and at the same time achieving effective communication through speaking or using signs may not be sufficient for them (Garcia Cabrere, 2002). So, for acquiring academic and intellectual skills, there is a necessity of developing reading and writing dimensions of oral communication effectively. For the purpose, there is a need for new

Theology essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Theology - Essay Example Sigmund Freud’s discourse traces a connection between civilization and religion as an illusion. As such, at the beginning of the book he raised a critique on civilization by claiming that civilization does not intend to effect the just distribution of wealth extracted from nature but that it intends to perpetuate the current distribution of wealth and the status of human interrelationship (Freud, 1989:4-5). In this context, Freud raises the concept that although civilization is plagued with problems because it seeks to curtail the satisfaction of human instinct, it is useful for humanity to create a communal relationship because it lessens the uncertainty, cruelty and control of Nature and Fate over human life. As such, it can be impugned that human civilization is a tool whose â€Å"principal task †¦, its actual raison dà ªtre, is to defend us against nature† (Freud, 1989:14). In this framework, the humanization of nature and fate is undertaken and is deemed inst rumental in removing the people’s fear of nature and rob nature of its capacity to destroy and annihilate humanity. Thus, this process pave for the reenactment of one’s self as â€Å"a small child, in relation to ones parents. One had reason to fear them, and especially ones father; and yet one was sure of his protection against the dangers one knew† (Freud, 1989:16). Within this paradigm, man utilizes the gods with a threefold tasks: â€Å"they must exorcize the terrors of nature, they must reconcile men to the cruelly of Fate, particularly as it is shown in death, and they must compensate them for the sufferings and privations which a civilized life in common has imposed on them†(Freud, 1989:17). Being such, man’s continued helplessness is assuaged by the protection given to them by the gods. Moreover, since the medieval period, man’s relation with the gods has been transformed in the reenactment of the loving relationship between the son and the father.

Canters Behavior Management Style Essay Example for Free

Canters Behavior Management Style Essay Disruptive behavior in the classroom has become one of the most common issues in the educational process; negative behavior not only affects the students but the teacher as well. In order for a classroom to function in a positive manner giving the student and teacher the best environment to operate proper behavior and decorum are essential. There are many theories and discipline models teachers adhere to in modern classrooms of today one of the most influential in the area of discipline was developed by Lee and Marlene Canter. The Canter’s are both teachers and authors; their most famous book is called â€Å"Assertive Discipline† which is a how to book on how to rid the classroom of unwanted behaviors. The Canter discipline theory is based on teacher needs, wants and feelings. The Canter’s believe teachers have their own rights which include the following: â€Å"The right to establish classroom rules and procedures that produce the optimum learning environment, the right to insist on behavior from students that meets teachers’ needs, the right to receive help in disciplining from both parents and school administrators when support is needed. These rights are based on the Canter’s â€Å"Assertive Theory†. All teachers must clearly communicate what they expect from their students and that there are consequences should the rules not be followed (Canter, 2011). The Canter’s believe in a â€Å"take control† approach to the classroom. Their philosophy is teachers are there to teach and students are there to learn, misbehavior should not interfere in this equation. The Canter’s teach educators to take charge in the classroom and be assertive concerning their own wants and needs to their students. Examples of what the Canter’s communicate to teachers that are used in the classroom management today are: be straight forward with students, use firm tone of voice, make eye contact when speaking, use both verbal/non-verbal communication and continually state the teacher wants and needs. According to the Canter’s if the educator can use the above on a continued basis discipline should take care of itself (Kavanagh, Lang, 2000). The following is a case study of a discipline problem found in classrooms. The information below is from a behavioral situation at an elementary school located in Phoenix Arizona. A nine year old student by the name of Billy (4th grader) is exhibiting disruptive behavior in a class reported by the teacher. The student (Billy) comes from a broken home where the father left the family unexpectedly a few years back. The mother recently re-married, the new spouse has a daughter roughly the same age as Billy: the relationship between Billy and his new sister is not considered ideal. The new spouse often confronts Billy’s mother in a loud voice in front of the children, the atmosphere is not considered conducive to a â€Å"family† environment. Billy is having issues inside as well as outside the classroom. The issues outside the classroom are in the form of arguments with fellow students and a lack of respect for teacher authority on the playground. Inside the classroom his disruptive behavior consist of talking when the teacher is talking which is not only disruptive to the teacher but other students as well. Billy will also speak out of turn, instead of raising his hand to answer a question he will simply blurt out the answer, he will also during this time mimic his teacher in a disrespectful manner. His attention to detail and attentiveness overall in the classroom continues to decline on a daily basis. Billy’s behavior seems to be a reflection of his new family environment. He seems to have authoritative issues and may not like his teacher; Billy seems to have a big problem with the teacher when confronted openly (in front of class) about his misbehaviors. Billy also has problems with his desk partner who is female and calls attention too many of his misbehaviors. According to Canter the educator should always have a goal of creating an environment where positive teaching behavior is the norm and necessary in order to achieve the goal of effective teaching despite disruptive students such as Billy. The teacher must attempt to control disruptive students such as Billy in a manner different from his/her current teaching model. Accordingly, the teacher’s classroom management plan in the area of discipline must be evident even in a class where there are very few children exhibiting disruptive behavior. Without a discipline management plan students such as Billy would continue along their path of disruptive behavior. The focus of Canter’s discipline model is the concept of teacher rights in the classroom. The Canter method is to show educators how to take charge in the classroom by taking into account student rights in conjunction with teacher rights. †¢The right to good behavior.  In the case of Billy the Teacher should start with the basic right to have good behavior from the students (Billy). This right should be set at the beginning of the school year when the teacher presents the set of rules. This right should also be made available to the parents of every student. †¢The right to expect support from parents/administrators. In the case of Billy parents must be made aware of the situation and support the teacher to help Billy correct the discipline issues. Billy also has basic rights in this situation â€Å"The right to have teachers who help them develop by helping them limit self-destructive and inappropriate behavior. † The teacher according to Canter can do this with simple actions such as a strong toned voice or by making eye contact. For Billy this can be dealt with at a few different levels. First make eye contact with Billy when the teacher feels the behavior is wrong, if this does not work then a stern voice , if this does not work talk to student privately voicing behavioral expectations and lastly if all the above does not do the job include the parents/administrators (Turrell, 1999). â€Å"The right to have appropriate support from their teachers for their appropriate behavior† (Canter, 2011) According to Canter this is done with positive reinforcement; let the student know when student is presenting appropriate behavior. In the case of Billy always pointing out the negatives and not giving positive reinforcement when he displays good behavior will not produce a productive disciplined student, the educator must have a balance. †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"The right to choose how to behave with advance knowledge of the consequences that will logically and certainly follow† (Canter, 2011).  Every student should know at the beginning of class what is deemed appropriate behavior and if an act of misbehavior is executed consequences will follow, this should all be spelled out the first day of class in the class set of rules. Canter said: Assertive teacher is more effective than the nonassertive or the hostile teacher. The teacher is able to maintain a positive, caring, and productive climate in the classroom. A climate of care and support produces the climate for learning. Canter believes the educator must present balance in their teaching approach, an educator cannot over emphasize the positive or the negative, if one outweighs the other the learning environment cannot be productive (Ferguson Houghton, 1992). This is done through the Canter discipline model called â€Å"Assertive Discipline†. In Billy’s case it appears his home life is interfering with his behavior at school, it seems he is mimicking the behavior of his new father in some ways and it is up to the teacher to let him know these types of behaviors are not appropriate by using the Canter’s Assertive Discipline† model.

Business environment facing lafarge cement of UK

Business environment facing lafarge cement of UK Introduction Lafarge has been a major player in the UK construction sector since entering the British market in 1987 acquiring Redland in 1997 and Blue Circle in 2001. Today, Lafarge is the market-leader in cement and holds top-ranking positions in aggregates, concrete and plasterboard. Lafarge has three sister companies in Britain Lafarge Cement UK, Lafarge Aggregates Concrete UK and Lafarge Plasterboard UK. Lafarge is passionate about customer care and proud of its active approach to sustainability and safety (Lafarge.co.uk 2009). This piece of work will explore the business environment facing Lafarge and establish a few strategic priorities going into the future. A Summary Statement of Findings This summary statement of findings analyses the UK construction industry, which is a major sector in the UK economy. The industry has a high political and social profile due to it key role in providing housing, its impact on the environment and its part as a major employer. It accounts for approximately 10% of the UK GDP and provides for over half its fixed capital investment. The industry experienced rapid growth in the 1980s but a recession in the early 1990s had severe repercussions resulting in its output plummeting, as show is Appendix . However, the volume of work already in progress cushioned the impact. The output of the UK construction industry increased from 55 million in the mid 1980s to an excess of  £110 million by 2007; a remarkable increase in real terms when considering the relative low levels of inflation. However, this increase all changed in 2008 as problems in the US sub-prime mortgage market triggered a catastrophic crash in the US banking sector, which in turn created problems in UK financial markets. This triggered a huge recession in the UK which sent the output of the UK Construction industry to fall 1.1% in 2008. The downside of the economic recession hit construction industry the hardest. This is as this industry runs on credit, more than others, and a credit squeeze affected it badly. Moreover, from the other side customers we re trying to spend as little as possible, squeezing the margins that construction companies were working on. Lafarges performance within the UK business environment during 2008 saw a decline as discussed in Appendix ?. This decline was caused by the recession that hit the UK market in early 2008; the construction sector shrank at its fastest pace since records began. This reduced government and public spending which had a major impact on Lafarge as less government spending meant less money went on the new infrastructure schemes which reduced Lafarge Contracting sales which in turn reduced material sales This had a big effect on Lafarge UK figures as they seen an immense slump in 2008 figures compared to what they were in 2007. A Review and Analysis into the Business Environment of the UK Construction Industry Business environment at Lafarge UK The best method to discover the happenings of a business environment around a company is to undertake a PESTEL analysis. By undertaking a PESTEL analysis it will help one to understand the environment within which Lafarge works better. Looking at the construction industry in general, some of the political issues surrounding them are: Political factors * The UK government is clearly pushing for more affordable housing within the country and this includes both public sector and private sector housing. So it can be said that good or decent housing needs to the people of the country is quite an important political issue. * The Government is involved with housing projects through private finance initiatives and public private partnerships, as these tend to be key aspects of housing projects involving financing, building and operating for these projects. This level of government involvement does mean that it has political implications like selecting projects or choosing partners as well as financial implications. * The UK construction industry is very large in terms of employment, revenue generation and importance to the economy. This high profile nature of the company means the Government usually takes its concerns very seriously and cannot afford to not be empathetic towards the industry. * The constantly spiralling prices of housing within the country points to the need of having affordable housing. Affordable housing schemes means more houses will be built and thus definitely have an impact on all parts of the construction industry including that of Lafarge. * The problem with a high profile industry is that it brings about a lot of regulations with it, thus needs like planning permission and so cause a lot of delay in projects involving a lot of debate and to some extent bureaucracy. Economic Factors  · The construction industry has a more than  £100 bn turnover and this making it one of the largest sectors of the country. This clearly specifies scope for Lafarge, especially as it has the reach and resources to be a big player within the industry.  · The downside of the economic recession has hit construction industry the hardest. This is as this industry runs on credit, more than others, and a credit squeeze affected it badly. Moreover, from the other side customers were trying to spend as little as possible, squeezing the margins that construction companies were working on. Although the economy is recovering but coming out of a long recession, the industry will take time to reach its pre recession levels.  · One of the implications of being part of the construction industrys that the Government is tightening the environmental norms all the time thus it adds to the financial burden of the company as they have to deal with directives, clauses and other pieces of legislation. Social Factors  · There is some skill shortage within the construction industry hence an effort is being made by all companies to hire young, talented people. This can affect Lafarge as they will need to invest time and money into the training of these individuals but as a long-term investment it is good for the company.  · The changes in society have been bringing about a change in the housing needs for people and fast. As more people are living alone, marrying later and old people living longer, distinct changes in housing pattern can be seen. This will increase the need for single occupancy housing thus this needs to be thought of by all constituents of the construction industry.  · With the ever increasing need for sustainable development, housing projects are affecting nearby retail, commercial and public buildings too. This again changes the way the industry functions or will do in the future. Technological Factors  · Regulations regarding buildings continue to add towards bettering energy efficiency and putting demand on other such technological factors in relation to buildings. This again adds to the financial burden of the companies like Lafarge and a major investment in RD results due to this.  · New and improved building materials are also a major research within the industry. The need of the hour is to come up with materials that are sustainable, good for the environment but still functional. Hence work is being carried out to satisfy the next generation of demands.  · Methods that are being used within the industry to build houses are giving rise to new methods of assembly and modulation. New improvements include developing structured insulated panels that provide thermally insulated sheet materials. For further information, Appendix offers a further review and analysis into the business environment of the UK construction industry. Lafarge does operate within the larger construction industry sector; however this section will explore the building materials sector, which is Lafarges core operating territory. This section will look at the environment for that particular sector. Sector overview As hinted in the last section that construction industry is undergoing a lot many changes and the building materials sector is no different. As emerging markets become urbanized and their demand for materials grows, so does the need to align to these markets. Within the more developed economies, environment and sustainability have become major points and as people gain awareness, companies like Lafarge will need to take those demands into consideration. Some of the key strategic directions taken by Lafarge are: Expansion of emerging markets There has been a thorough realignment in favour of emerging economies both in Europe and abroad. Around the world, cement production is growing at 5% each year which means that every year 100 million tones of cement is being consumed. Reports show that 70% of world demand is going to come from these sectors hence Lafarge will need to make itself a leading player in these markets. Lafarges current strategy in this regard is quite good, as it has acquired a lot of Cement companies in every region around the world. In fact including Asia, Africa, Central and Eastern Europe, this region contributes to 37% of its turnover and nearly half of its cement turnover. Lafarge is without doubt moving towards a strategy of more value creation. To elaborate, its programs are creating nearly 50 million tonnes of additional cement capacity by 2012. This is in addition to the aggregates and gypsum business. Reducing costs There are a lot of general costs associated with the manufacture of building products and can be broken down as follows: Energy accounts for 33% of the cost of producing cement, Raw materials (more than 50% of which are cement) represent 75% of the cost of ready-mix concrete Delivery expenses account for approximately 20% of the cost, raw materials (primarily gypsum and paper) represent 40% of the cost of plasterboard, energy, raw materials and labour represent 50% of the cost of producing aggregates. Lafarge will need to reduce all costs associated with material manufacture, especially considering the economic crisis in general. It has already started a program that reduces costs by à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬200 million by the start of 2010 and over a period of three years, a cost cutting of nearly à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400 million. (see appendix ?) This is in addition to the cost cutting exercise over 2006-08 of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400 million. It has also put a cap on expenditure at à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ 2 billion for 2009. These new financial initiatives have completely set Lafarge in a new strategic direction. Cost cutting will definitely improving the companys financial health and enable it to operate on better margins. Reducing environmental footprint of Lafarge operations If one looks at the industry in general there is a lot of waste production along with pollution, dust and other harmful ingredients in the atmosphere. Those materials that are waste derived are actively needed by the cement industry. These are used as replacement for fossil fuel and other raw materials. This measure is only taken forward if the materials can be safe to use and are of high technical quality. Along with all of this if the regulatory norms are met then these materials can be used and are a boon for the industry. The entire industry is now using over 1.4 million tonnes of waste this way and a major contributor in helping the UK government to meet its environmental targets. Coming back to Lafarge, it has been trying to reduce CO2 it produces and emits in accordance to the regulations set by governments all around the world. The current strategy of Lafarge is to improving its material making processes including modernizing plants. It also is rapidly propagating the use of alternative fuels for its production. Another important step taken by the company is moving towards sustainable construction. Building or construction of any sort does lead to consumption of huge swathes of energy and nearly 40% of all CO2 can be attributed to it. Lafarge is working hard at making better buildings using better materials and processes. Lafarge is looking at changing the lifecycle of making building products and incorporating using recyclable materials and renewable energy in order to reduce pollution. Evaluating the future impact of the UK business environment on Lafarge Some important themes have emerged from the previous sections of this piece of work that will help one to recommend future strategies to Lafarge. As far as strategic direction goes Lafarge has to align the company in two directions: First, it needs to keep investing in the emerging markets by strategically acquiring cement companies or starting Greenfield projects if needed. Its taking over of Orascom cement clearly shows that organic growth is important for the company and needs to continue in the same vein. (see appendix ?) Second, innovation via investment in RD is crucial for its long-term benefit. As companies and people grow more aware of the issues surrounding the environment, recyclable and sustainable practices, including materials processes, production needs to be incorporated. This will require a lot of effort and investment as well as a new way of thinking. Other than these main priorities the company can look at other strategic priorities for its operations. These include reducing costs further to enhance the value of the company. Lean operations within this sector will it streamline its operations. In addition, Health safety remains a big area to improve on and such activities will definitely strengthen its position in the market. Conclusion This piece of work looked at the construction industry in the UK and Lafarge materials in particular, to understand the way in which its business environment affects its operations. The work conducted a PESTEL analysis to understand the main challenges facing the construction industry in general. It then went on to conduct a sector overview of the building materials industry, where Lafarge truly operates. One also explored the strategic initiatives started by Lafarge. Finally, based on the current and future trends recommendations were made on Lafarges future strategy. REFERENCES: * Accountancy Ireland (2006), February, Vol. 38, No.1 * Anonymous Contract Journal (2006), September, ABI/INFORM Trade Industry Contract Journal, February, Vol. 442, No. 6664 * Druker, J. and White, G. (1995), Misunderstood and undervalued? Personnel management in construction, Human Resource Management Journal, 5:3, pp. 77-91. * Hollinshead, G., Nicholls, P. and Tailby, S. (1999), Employee Relations, Financial Times/Pitman, London. * Lafarge (2009). www.lafarge..co.uk [Online].[Accessed 12th Januray 2010]. * Mineral Products Association(2008). Performance 2008: A sector plan report from the cement industry. * Oxley R., Poskitt J. (1996), Management Techniques Applied to Construction Industry, Blackwell Publishing, Fifth Edition. Identifying and applying suitable business performance measures to Lafarge Lafarge had an average current ratio in 2007 in relation to its market but this decreased in 2008. Lafarges low current ratio indicates that it barely has sufficient assets available to pay its liabilities. There are many things Lafarge could do to raise there current ratio which are increasing its current assets from loans or other borrowings with a maturity of more than one year, convert non-current assets into current assets or putting profits back into the business could help. Lafarges debtor ratio represents a longer then average duration in obtaining payment for its debts owed compared to that of rival company Aggregate Industries Ltd. This indicates a struggle to obtain payment for work completed, or highlights a need to offer costly credit terms to compete with its rivals. Imposing stricter credit controls can help reduce Lafarges debtor days and improve cash flow. Alternatively, creditor ratio suggests Lafarge are paying there creditors to promptly the creditor ratio is below the market average and Lafarge are not taking advantage of the free cash flow the creditors offer. This could cause working capital issues. Lafarges weak working capital results over the past two year indicate they do not have the liquidity to meet outstanding obligations. Lafarges cash outflow is quicker than its cash inflow. However the debt to equity ratio suggests otherwise. Lafarge has no long term debt indicating strong financial strength as they can always take up debt in future to fund potential projects. A strong interest cover over 2007/2008 indicate that Lafarge has enough equity to pay its loan interest and meet its legal obligations. A zero dividend yield indicates that Lafarges shares have not matured over the past two years. Potential share holders may be discouraged by this. Its strong acid test ratio proves that current assets are not dependable on inventory-which shows strong financial integrity. A negative return on capitally employed questions Lafarges performance, although they have a strong equity base they are still making a loss. Its declining trading profit margin solidifies this by suggesting a potential loss of competitive advantage. A healthy year on year performance in return on equity indicates a strong level of profitability, high market valuation and utilization of its invested capital. A steady low dividend figure along with stable profit levels indicate a good record of using its retained earnings to generate future growth and profits. For further information, Appendix offer a complete evaluation, as well as the subsequent results of Lafarges business performance.

Losses In Xlpe Insulated Cables Engineering Essay

Losses In Xlpe Insulated Cables Engineering Essay Power cables, mainly underground power cables form a bulk part of electrical power systems network. Accordingly, when medium voltage XLPE cables were first installed in the late 1960s, cable manufacturers and electric utilities expected them to perform reliably for 20 to 30 years. However, history has shown that these cables had high percentage of life losses whereby the service life of some of these cables was far shorter than expected. Many cables failed after only 10 to 15 years in service. The failure of XLPE cables was happened due to the aging process. Aging of XLPE cables is related to the temperature of the insulation. For XLPE cables, the normal maximum operating temperature is 90  °C. At this maximum value, the consumption rate of anti-oxidant has been calculated to afford a cable life of 30 years. Increasing the XLPE cables operating temperature will increase the rate which the anti-oxidant is used up. Subsequently, it will reduce the service life of XLPE cables. The rea ction follows the Arrhenius relationship which is an exponential function. From this, even a small increase in temperature, it will hence give significant impact on the aging process of XLPE cables. Once the anti-oxidant in the cables is used up, the cables will start to oxidize and become easily broken. Then, the cables will be subject to stress cracking and electrical failure at positions of mechanical stress. In addition, the presence of harmonics in power system causes a conductor to overheat. This overheating process makes the cable to increase in term of temperature to its insulation. Therefore, cable will soften and the mechanical performances will reduce which is called as premature aging. Thus, it is important to investigate the presence of harmonic in any electrical equipment. From this we could know the temperature due to the overheating process and evaluate the life losses of any associated cables. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE DECLARATION 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2 ABSTRACT 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 1 INTRODUCTION 8 1.1 Background 8 1.2 Premature Aging due to Harmonic 9 1.3 Development of Power Cables 9 1.3.1 Oil-Impregnated Paper Power Cables 10 1.3.2 Solid-Dielectric-Extruded Power Cables 11 1.3.2.1 Technology of XLPE Cables 13 1.4 Losses in Power Cables 15 1.5 Objectives of Study 16 1.6 Scopes of study 17 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 18 2.1. Introduction 18 2.2. Power System Harmonics 18 2.2.1. Definition of Harmonics 19 2.2.2. Source of Harmonics 19 2.2.3. The Harm of Harmonic 20 2.2.4. Effects of Harmonics on Power System 21 2.2.4.1 Motors and Generators 21 2.2.4.2 Transformers 22 2.2.4.3 Power Cables 22 2.2.4.4 Capacitors 23 2.2.5. Economical Damage due to Harmonic Losses 23 2.3 Underground Power Cables 24 2.3.1 Gas-filled Cable 24 2.3.2 XLPE Cables 27 3 EVALUATION OF THE AGING COST DUE TO HARMONIC LOSSES IN XLPE CABLES 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.1.1 Flowchart 30 3.2 Calculation of Losses 31 3.2.1 Resistance of the conductor 31 3.2.2 Skin Effect 32 3.2.3 Proximity Effect 33 3.2.4 Total Power Losses 33 3.2.4.1 Joule Losses 34 3.2.4.2 Dielectric losses 34 3.3 Probabilistic Evaluation of the Economical Damage due to Harmonic Losses 35 3.3.1 Expected Value of the Aging Cost due to Harmonic Losses 35 3.4 Conclusion 39 4 DATA, MODELLING AND ASSUMPTIONS 40 4.1 Data 40 4.2 Assumptions 41 5 RESULTS, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSIONS 42 5.1 Results 42 5.2 Discussions 45 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 46 6.1 Expected result 46 6.2 Conclusions 47 6.3 Recommendations 47 REFERENCES 49 APPENDICES APPENDIX A 52 APPENDIX B 58 APPENDIX C 67 APPENDIX D 68 APPENDIX E 69 APPENDIX F 72 APPENDIX G 73 Background By means of the discovery of electricity in the early 19th Century, all countries in the world nowadays have virtually utilized electricity as a source of light and energy. This has led to the existence of distribution-transmission line system carrying current, even if at different voltages and transporting it over long distances till the end users or customers. For the distribution-transmission line system, engineers had thought critically in finding the suitable power cables for power system. Mainly, most of the bulk electrical energy generated from the generation centers is being transported to major load centers within a large geographical area by the transmission systems using overhead lines [1]. In the other words, the distribution system delivers the electrical energy from these load centers to customers who are within a smaller geographical area. For safety, reliability and aesthetics, the electric circuits used to transport energy to such customers are usually underground power cables, though this kind of arrangement is expensive but has more advantages than the overhead lines [2]. Over the years, high demand of reliable electricity power supply has led the electricity markets to be highly competitive. Electric utility companies now have to develop means of maintaining, enhance the safety and reliability of their expensive power system components to operate advantageously and meet the demands of their customers. One of power system component that constitutes a bulk part of the distribution and transmission line systems in urban areas is the underground power cable. For instance, in the United Kingdom there are about 93000 km of 11 kV cable and more than 13000 km of 33 kV [6]. In Malaysia with rush of development has led to increasing demands of electrical energy. Doing this, underground cable distribution is increasing significantly. It is estimated that there are about 180000 km of underground cables in Malaysia, forming about 80 % of the underground power distribution system. This shows that, the technology of underground power cables has grown up very fast by the time as the world is moving extremely in science and technology. However, lately the presence of harmonic in electrical energy systems is well known [3]. The harmonics are due to nonlinear loads such as static converter and can damage the system components [6]. In the case of the cables, harmonics can cause relevant additional losses in the conducting and in the insulating materials which cannot be neglected. From the economical point of view, the presence of harmonics can cause economical damage which increasing the operating costs and decreasing the useful life of the system components. The economical damage due to harmonic losses can be defined as the summation of the operating costs and the aging costs. As stated in [13], the operating costs are referred to the costs of the incremental energy losses caused by the harmonic flow in the component, where the term incremental means that these losses are superimposed to the ones at the fundamental while the aging costs are referred to the incremental investment costs caused by the premature aging of the components caused by the harmonic pollution. Premature Aging due to Harmonic Aging failures have become a major and urgent concern in many utilities since many power system components are approaching the turning point to the end of life. For the case of power cables, the premature aging occurs due to harmonic pollution. The harmonic flow can lead to additional heating in power cables. Subsequently, temperature will rise and premature aging may result. Development of Power Cables [1] Power cable technology had its beginnings in the 1880s when the need for power distribution cables became pressing. With urban growth, it became increasingly necessary to replace some of the overhead lines for power transmission and distribution system with underground cables. The illumination of the larger cities proceeded at such a rapid pace that under some circumstances it was impossible to accommodate the number and size of feeders required for distribution, using the overhead line system approach. In fact this situation deteriorated so notably in New York City that, in addition to the technical and aesthetic considerations, the overhead line system began to pose a safety hazard to the line workers themselves, the firemen, and the public. As a result, the city passed an ordinance law in 1884 requires removing the overhead line structures and replacing them with underground power cables. Similar laws and public pressure were applied in other cities, with the consequence that by the early 1900s, underground electrification via insulated cables was on its way to becoming a well-established practice [14]. A practical lead press was invented in 1879 and subsequently employed to manufacture 2kV cables for Vienna in 1885. During the same period, vulcanized rubber was used to produce cables on a commercial scale, although use of guttapercha had already been made as early as 1846. Impregnated-paper power cables were first put on the market in 1894 by Callender Cables of England, using impregnant mixtures of rosin oil, rosin and castor oil and only in 1918 were these replaced by mineral oils. In North America, impregnated-paper cables were first supplied by the Norwich Wire Company. Varnished cambric cables were introduced by the General Electric Company in 1902. The behavior of these cables with hightemperature was subsequently improved the addition of black asphalt. Some of the more common early solid and liquid insulating employed in various underground cable installations were natural rubber, gutta-percha, oil and wax, rosin and asphalt, jute, hemp, and cotton. In 1890, Ferranti developed the first oil-impregnated-paper power cable. By following their manufacture, his cables were installed in London in 1891 for 10 kV operations. In addition, the cables were made in 20 ft lengths as the total circuit was 30 miles in length about splicing joints were four required. Nevertheless, these cables performed so well that the last cable length was removed from service only in 1933. Cable installation continued to proceed at a rapid pace, so that by the turn of the 20th century many major cities throughout the world had many miles of underground power cables. For example, already by the end of 1909, the Commonwealth Edison Company in Chicago had 400 miles of underground cable operated in the voltage range between 9 to 20 kV. Montreal had some 4500 ft cir cuits of three-conductor cables installed in ducts under the Lachine canal for 25 kV operations; the same voltage was used for cable traversing the St. Lawrence River in 1906. With some experiences behind them, cable manufacturers were increasingly gaining confidence and during the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 power cables developed for voltages as high as 50 kV were put on display [14]. Oil-Impregnated Paper Power Cables [14] During the period prior to World War I, extensive use was made of oilimpregnated paper cables of the three-conductor belted type for voltages up to 25 kV. Due to non-uniform stress distribution in the cable construction, the belted cable proved to be highly partial discharge susceptible when attempts were made to extend the operating voltage range with larger wall thickness to approximately 35 kV, to meet the increased power demand following World War I [18]. This problem was resolved by shielding the individual conductors, using 3-mil-thick copper tapes. The outside of the shielded conductors was thus maintained at the same ground potential. Figure 1.3.1 Cross-section of an Oil-impregnated Paper Insulated Cable In addition, the belt insulation was replaced with a binder consisting of fabric tapes and strands of interwoven copper wire. The purpose of the latter was again to maintain the shields of the three cables at the same potential. Over the years, the conductor shapes of the three-conductor shielded paper insulated cables have evolved into three forms, namely circular, oval, and sectoral. In many utilities a substantial portion of the present-day distribution load is still carried at 35 kV via three-phase oil-impregnated paper belted cables, with the three conductors individually grounded. There is little inducement to replace these cables with solid extruded dielectric cables, whose outer diameter for an equivalent power rating would exceed that of the ducts accommodating the more compact threephase oil-paper belted cables. Moreover, the oil-paper belted cables have been characterized by remarkably long in-service lifetimes that often exceed 65 years. Belted cables with unshielded conductors are still deployed but only for working voltages equal to or less than 15 kV. With the individual conductors shielded, it was possible to extend the use of the three-phase belted cables for voltages as high as 69 kV, though on the average their application has been confined to voltages below 35 kV. The main reason for this upper limit has again been associated with the occurrence of partial discharges, which had in numerous instances led to the deterioration and failure of the dielectric at the elevated voltages. The partial discharges were found to take place in voids, which were formed either during the manufacturing process or during the load cycling while in service. Solid-Dielectric-Extruded Power Cables [1, 14] With the discovery of the hydrocarbon thermoplastic polyethylene (PE) in England in 1933, polyethylene became rapidly, the insulant of choice for RF coaxial cables. PE was first used as an insulant for power cables in the 1950s. In the mid 1960s, conventional PE became the material of choice for the rapidly expanding URD systems in the United States. It was known to be superior to butyl rubber for moisture resistance, and could be readily extruded. It was used with tape shields, which achieved their semi-conducting properties because of carbon black. By 1968, virtually all of the URD installations consisted of polyethylene-insulated medium voltage cables. The polyethylene was referred to as HMWPE; this simply meant that the insulation used had a very high average molecular weight. The higher the molecular weight, the better the electrical properties. The highest molecular weight PE that could be readily extruded was adopted. Jacketed construction was seldom employed at that time. Extruded thermoplastic shields were introduced between 1965 and 1975 leading both to easier processing and better reliability of the cable [19]. XLPE was first patented in 1959 for a filled compound and in 1963 for unfilled by Dr. Frank Precopio. It was not widely used because of the tremendous pressure to keep the cost of URD down near the cost of an overhead system. This higher cost was caused by the need for additives (cross linking agents) and the cost of manufacturing based on the need for massive, continuous vulcanizing (CV) tubes. EPR was introduced at about the same time. The significantly higher initial cost of these cables slowed their acceptance for utility purposes until the 1980s. The superior operating and allowable emergency temperatures of XLPE and EPR made them the choice for feeder cables in commercial and industrial applications. These materials do not melt and flow like HMWPE. The emergence of power distribution cables insulated with PE have replaced a significant portion of the oil-impregnated-paper insulated power cables used at operating voltages up to 35 kV. But lower voltage PILC cables are still being manufactured, due to their in-service longevity and reliability. In spite the long record of service and reliability of PILC cables, they are being gradually replaced by the less hygroscopic polymeric insulated cables, XLPE. XLPE cables have distinct advantages which are lighter weight, better electrical and thermal properties, less maintenance, and easier terminating and jointing procedure etc. Today, XLPE cables are being extensively used in many countries all over the world. In 1959, Japan and USA commercialized XLPE cables up to medium voltage rating. Since then a fast development of XLPE cables has taken place. Presently, XLPE cable of 500 kV class has been installed in Japan. The introduction of XLPE has increased the capability of polymeric insulated cables because of their higher temperature ratings. XLPE insulations perform well at elevated temperatures. Their normal operating temperature is about 90  °C and designed to withstand an emergency overload and short circuit ratings of 130  °C and 250  °C, respectively. Technology of XLPE Cables XLPE has become the most favored insulant. Germany, USA, Asian and Scandinavian countries have installed gigantic quantities of such cables. Japan has developed XLPE cables up to 500 kV which is the highest voltage rating of XLPE cables manufactured so far. The basic material for XLPE cable is polyethylene (PE). PE has very good electrical properties. However, its mechanical strength decreases significantly above 75  °C restricting its continuous operating temperature to 70  °C only. The improved thermal characteristics of PE are obtained by establishing a large number of cross-links between its liner molecular chains employing suitable techniques. The introduction of XLPE has increased the capability of polymeric insulated cables because of their higher temperature ratings. The processes for converting PE to XLPE are electron irradiation, chemical cross linking, and organic silane method. Electron irradiation is a slow process and it is difficult to ensure an even degree of cross linking throughout the thick insulation required for power cables. Therefore this process is usually restricted to thin insulation of 1 to 2 mm thickness only. Chemical cross linking process is the process by which cross-linking of PE is established using organic peroxide such as dicumyl peroxide (DCP) at high temperature in the range 250 to 350  °C and pressure 15-20 kg/cm2. This method is employed in the production of XLPE cables of all voltage range, from LV to EHV. Sioplas technique is a relatively new method of cross linking PE into XLPE. Cross linking is achieved by mixing suitable silane to PE and exposing this to ambient conditions. This method has the distinct advantage of lower capital expenditure as no special arrangements to maintain high pressure and temperature are required. But the process is very slow for thick insulation and hence restricted to low voltage and medium voltag e XLPE cables. The general construction of XLPE cable consists of copper or aluminium conductor, extruded layer of semi conducting material over conductor (for voltage class above 3.3 kV), extruded XLPE insulation, extruded layer of semi-conducting material (for cables of voltage rating above 3.3 kV), copper wire or tape as metallic screen, armour, inner sheath and outer sheath, usually made of PVC etc. Three core XLPE cables are generally used up to maximum 33 kV. Cables of 66 kV and above voltage rating are of single core construction. Figure 1.3.2 Solid dielectric extruded power cable [14] The manufacturing process of XLPE cables consists of mixing of PE with cross-linking agent (DCP) and antioxidants, extrusion of semiconducting layers and insulation over the conductor, crosslinking the PE compound in curing lines at high temperature and pressure and cooling the core to ambient temperature. All these processes are carried out in one step employing catenaries lines for curing and cooling, hence the name continuous catenaries vulcanization. Semiconducting layers and insulation are extruded using triple extrusion technique. The curing process was initially carried out with steam at high temperature and pressure. This resulted in the formation of microvoids within the insulation and restricted the application of steam curing process up to 33 kV. To achieve reliable HV cables, it was therefore necessary to employ curing in the absence of steam. For this reason, dry curing methods were developed, where PE was crosslinked under nitrogen pressure in silicone oil, in molten salt and also in long dies. The numbers of microvoids were drastically reduced. A new curing process has recently appeared namely silane process which is more economical. Losses in Power Cables Losses in power cables include losses in conductor, insulation, sheath, and screens armors. Conductor losses (I2Rac losses) depend upon the rms current I effective AC resistance of the cable conductor. Dielectric losses comprise of losses due to leakage through the cable insulation and caused by dielectric polarization under AC stresses. It includes the net dielectric losses depend upon cable voltage, its frequency as well as the permittivity and loss tangent of the cable dielectric material, as shown by the equation below: Power loss = à Ã¢â‚¬ °CoV2ÃŽÂ µr tan ÃŽÂ ´ [2] (1) Generally, tan ÃŽÂ ´, which partially controls the dielectric losses, is significantly higher for oil-paper insulation as compared to XLPE insulation. For most of the dielectric materials used in cables, tan ÃŽÂ ´ depends upon temperature, applied stress and supply frequency. For oil-paper insulation tan ÃŽÂ ´ is also strongly influenced by moisture content. Therefore, in voltage cables, a moisture level of less than 0.05 % is desirable in order keep dielectric losses within acceptable limits. The presence of voids and microcracks can also influence dielectric losses. These voids are formed in the insulation or at the screens/insulation interfaces during manufacture, installation or operation. In polymeric cables, they are formed during the extrusion process while in paper-insulated cables, during the impregnation cycle. Voids may also form in cables by the differential expansion contraction of cable materials due to cyclic loading or short circuit conditions. These voids have a higher electric stress as compared to the bulk insulation. However, the gas inside a void usually has lower breakdown strength as compared to the main insulation. When the electric stress in void exceeds the breakdown strength of gas within the void, PD occurs. Any partial discharge in such voids increases the effective tan ÃŽÂ ´ value for insulation. Consequently, when the applied voltage is raised above the charge inception threshold, the dielectric losses exhibit a distinct increase. Similarly, impurities in the cable insulation and screening materials also increase dielectric losses. The AC current flowing along each cable conductor induces emf the metallic sheaths of the cable. Without grounding, such sheaths would operate at a potential above the ground potential and can pose a hazard. Furthermore, it will accelerate degradation of the jacket and materials, thereby affecting the cables life and reliability. When the sheaths are bonded, circulating current flows in them causing power losses. However, for three-core cables such losses are negligible. In addition to circulating currents, eddy currents are also induced in sheaths of both single and multi-core cables causing additional losses which usually are of small magnitudes. 1.5 Objectives of Study This project is conducted to evaluate the expected value of aging cost due to harmonic losses in XLPE cables. Therefore, this project is conducted regarding to these objectives: To investigate the effects of harmonics losses on XLPE cables from economical point of view. To evaluate the expected value of the aging cost due to harmonics losses in XLPE insulated cables. 1.6 Scope of study This study will focus on XLPE insulated cables This study will use the characteristics of single core underground cables. The effect of harmonics losses on XLPE cable will be investigated A program will be developed to evaluate the expected value of aging cost due to harmonic losses. The economical damage due to harmonic losses is quantified by means of the expected values of the operating costs and of the aging costs. For this, it will focus only for the calculation of the expected values of the aging costs. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction We design power systems to function at the fundamental frequency [1]. In Malaysia, the fundamental frequency is standardized at 50 Hz. This design is prone to unsatisfactory operation. At the same time, failure will happen when subjected to voltages and currents those contain substantial harmonic frequency elements. Frequently, the electrical equipment may seem operate normally. However, when they operate under a certain combination of conditions it might enhance the impact of harmonics which cause results to damage [20]. Most people do not realize that harmonics have been around for a long time. Since the first AC generator began to operate more than 100 years ago (Sankaran, C., 1995), electrical power systems have experienced harmonics. When harmonics present in electrical equipment, it can cause the equipment to malfunction and fail to work. In this case proper design and rating are needed to prevent the presence of harmonics. 2.2 Power System Harmonics The objective of the electric utility is to deliver sinusoidal voltage at fairly constant magnitude throughout their system. In fact, in order to achieve this objective is reasonably complicated because there are loads that exist on the power system that will produce harmonic currents. These currents produced may result in distorted voltages and currents that can give negative impact to the system performance in different ways. As the number of harmonic producing loads has increased over the years, it has become increasingly necessary to address their influence when making any addition or changes to an installation. We should consider two important concepts that have to bear in mind with regard to power system harmonics. The first concept is the nature of harmonic current producing loads (non linear loads) and the second concept is the way in which harmonic currents flow and how the resulting harmonic voltages develop. Ideally, voltage and current waveforms are perfect sinusoids. However, because of the increased popularity of electronic and other non-linear loads, these waveforms quite often become distorted. This deviation from a perfect sine wave can be represented by harmonics sinusoidal components having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. Thus, a pure voltage or current sine wave has no distortion and no harmonics, and a non-sinusoidal wave has distortion and harmonics. To quantify the distortion, the term total harmonic distortion (THD) is used. The term expresses the distortion as a percentage of the fundamental (pure sine) of voltage and current waveforms. In addition, current harmonics can distort the voltage waveform and cause voltage harmonics. Voltage distortion affects not only sensitive electronic loads but also electric motors and capacitor banks. 2.2.1 Definition of Harmonic Harmonics are defined as current and voltages at frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental power frequency [4]. For example, if the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, then the second harmonic is 100 Hz, the third is 150 Hz, and etc [5]. The presence of harmonics in electrical energy systems is well recognized due to nonlinear loads such as static converters and it can damage the system components [6]. These nonlinear loads will draw current in abrupt pulses rather than in a smooth sinusoidal manner. Then, these pulses cause distorted current wave shapes which in turn and cause harmonic currents to flow back into other parts of the power system. In the case of power cables, harmonics can cause relevant additional losses in the conducting and in the insulating materials which cannot be neglected in the cable size [6]. 2.2.2 Source of harmonics Most harmonics originate from the generation of harmonic current caused by nonlinear load signatures [4]. The major sources of power system harmonics include switching operations, power electronic devices and other nonlinear loads and etc [7]. Electronic devices are nonlinear and thus they create distorted currents even when supplied with a purely sinusoidal voltage. As nonlinear currents flow through a facilitys electrical system and the distribution-transmission lines, additional voltage distortions are produced due to the impedance associated with the electrical network. Thus, as electrical power is generated, distributed, and utilized, voltage and current waveform distortions are produced [8]. As the number and ratings of power electronic devices connected to the power systems increase, the harmonic currents injected into power system and the resulting voltage distortions have become a major problem for power quality. This is the current issues that always be taken into account nowadays. Furthermore, the installation of power factor improving capacitors may lead to resonance conditions that amplify specific harmonic currents flowing into transformers and generators. On the other hand, large industrial ac motors may also provide a path for the harmonic currents. These currents can cause overheating problems for the motors, generators, and transformers. Power grid connected electric devices which can generate harmonic currents in the power system include fluorescent light ballast transformers, induction motors, incandescent light dimmers, overexcited transformers, arc welding equipment, AC/DC rotary converters, battery chargers, computers, and any type of device that utilize s rectified AC power to drive DC equipment [9]. 2.2.3 The Harm of Harmonics Harmonics only mean trouble if the power system is not well designed to handle them. High harmonic neutral currents are a problem only if the neutral is not properly sized. Current harmonics are not a problem to a transformer if it is derated appropriately. Even some voltage distortion below 8 % THD at the point of utilization is acceptable as long as sensitive equipment is not affected. However, it is always important to be aware of the presence of harmonics and to try to minimize them by purchasing low distortion electronic ballasts and reactors for PWM ASDs. This will not only keep the harmonics in check and improve the power factor in the facility, but will also save energy by reducing losses on power system components. In addition, any time there is a considerable increase of non-linear loads, it is important to check power system components to prevent problems. 2.2.4 Effects of Harmonics on Power System Harmonic currents and voltage distortion are becoming the most severe and complex electrical challenge for th